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Additional Links and References
The subject of "biological complexity" or "organised complexity" in the built
environment is a rapidly developing one.
Even so, this fascinating field has been around for at
least half a century. Perhaps the most seminal texts are
these classics by Jane Jacobs
and Christopher Alexander:
Jane Jacobs, "The Kind of Problem A
City Is," from The Death and Life of Great American
Cities
Alexander, Christopher, "A City is Not A Tree," RUDI
Online Resources.
Alexander has written
many other works on urban complexity since then:
Alexander,
Christopher et al. A Pattern Language
(Oxford University Press, New York, 1977).
Alexander,
Christopher et al. A New Theory of Urban Design
(Oxford University Press, New York, 1987).
Alexander,
Christopher. The Nature of Order (Center for
Environmental Structure, 2004).
Alexander's site at the Center for
Environmental Structure is:
http://www.patternlanguage.com
Our colleague Nikos Salingaros has
a number of on-line papers on this topic, available at:
http://www.math.utsa.edu/sphere/salingar/contr.arch.html
Many other texts discuss complexity
and "chaos theory" (a narrower term disliked
by some scientists, since what is loosely called "chaos"
is actually a different kind of order.) Following are
some websites that offer an overview and links to
additional resources.
A definition of
complexity, and useful links, by Francis Heylighen of
the Free University of Brussels:
http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/COMPLEXI.html
A number of organisations and
journals are devoted to this subject. Here are
two:
http://www.complexity-society.com
http://journal-ci.csse.monash.edu.au
Here is one of the
more lucid texts giving an overview of
the subject:
Waldrop,
M. Mitchell, Complexity. (Touchstone Books,
1992)
Additional texts on this and
related subjects, particularly as they apply to design:
Bovill,
Carl. Fractal Geometry in Architecture and Design
(Boston: Birkhäuser, 1996).
Coveney,
Peter and Highfield, Roger, Frontiers of Complexity:
The Search for Order in a Chaotic World. (Fawcett
Columbine, 1995).
Doczi,
Gyorgi. The Power of Limits: Proportional Harmonies
in Nature, Art, and Architecture. (Shambhala
Publications, 1994).
Ghyka,
Matila. The Geometry of Art And Life (Paperback, 1988).
Gleick,
James Chaos. (Penguin USA, 1988).
Miller,
George, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two,"
Psychological Review,
63, 81-97
(1956).
Simon,
Herbert, “The Architecture of Complexity,”
Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society
106 1962 pp 467-482
Wolfram,
Steven, A New Kind of Science (Wolfram Media (2002).
The implications of
this science for the structure of society and culture
has also been extensively discussed. Here is one
of the more lucid texts:
Johnson,
Steven. Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants,
Brains, Cities, and Software. (Scribner, 2001).
The evolution of culture as a
complex phenomenon has been discussed by many authors.
One of the most incisive papers on the evolution of
"spurious" cultures was by the pioneering anthropologist
and linguist Edward Sapir:
Edward Sapir,
Culture, Genuine and Spurious
The philosophy of science
behind much of complexity theory was explored early in
the 20th century by the mathematician and philosopher
Alfred North Whitehead:
Whitehead,
Afred North, Modes of Thought. (MacMillan
Free Press, New York, 1938).
Whitehead,
Afred North, Process and Reality. (MacMillan
Free Press, New York, 1929).
Whitehead,
Alfred North, Adventures of Ideas. (MacMillan
Free Press, New York, 1933).
Whitehead,
Alfred North, Science and the Modern World. (MacMillan
Free Press, New York, 1935).
Other philosophers who
explored related ideas were Henri Bergson, William James and Charles
Peirce.
Many mathematicians and
anthropologists have recently made great strides in
exploring the concept of "symmetry" in design. The
notion of symmetry here is not merely axial symmetry,
but a much broader conception including recursiveness,
fractal forms and other geometries of the "new
sciences." (See the closely related discussion of
"connective symmetry" in
"The New Modernity" in this volume.)
One of the most
comprehensive bibliographies on the topic of symmetry is given in
the fine recent book Symmetry Comes of Age: The Role of
Pattern in Culture, edited by Dorothy K. Washburn and
Donald W. Crowe. We reprint it here with thanks to
the authors.
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